Mali is a sub-Saharan country whose economy is primarily based on agriculture and animal husbandry. It is divided into three major regions:

• The Saharan region with less than 100 mm of rain per year is dominated by thorny brush and annual herbaceous vegetation.
• The Sahelian region receives 550 mm of rain per year and supports a high density of cattle.
• The Sudano-Sahelian region receives about 1,000 mm of rain per year and supports much agriculture.

Mali has a population of 10 million with a growth rate of 3.2%. A per capita GNP of $260 makes Mali one of the poorest countries in the world. Agriculture is the main economic activity. It employs 80% of the work force and accounts for 50% of the GNP. The main food crops are millet, sorghum, maize, and rice often grown in rotation with legumes such as niébé, and groundnut. The main cash crop, known in Mali as "white gold", is cotton and its production is currently increasing.

Livestock, accounting for 17% of the GDP, is significant. It is estimated that there are 5.4 million cattle, 11.9 million sheep and goats, and 206 thousand camels¹. These animals contribute significantly to both meat production and draft power.

Following independence, Mali enjoyed stable food security throughout the country. With plentiful rains, abundant plant cover, low soil erosion, and adequate soil fertility, agricultural production was high. Indeed, at the
time, Mali was considered the granary of West Africa. Farmers grew almost exclusively food crops. These were produced using traditional methods such as the use of organic fertilizer and diversified cropping systems. Frequent arrangements between livestock owners and growers in the sedentary areas brought about a degree of integration of crops with animal husbandry. The rational use of natural resources was a responsibility shared by the entire community. The environment was protected from abuse by taboos and traditional laws.

Agricultural research and extension was in the hands of farmers who developed new varieties and practices appropriate to their agroecological area. Results would be shared between farmers via well-established networks spanning several villages.

In the 1970s, however, there was a policy change in favor of cash crops. To earn foreign currency, the government encouraged cotton, irrigated rice and tobacco. Cotton has displaced food crops from the best land². With these crops, new agricultural methods eroded traditional agricultural knowledge. Subsidies on chemical fertilizers and spectacular demonstrations of crop yields achieved with pesticides and new varieties facilitated the adoption of this new technology. Recent changes in climatic patterns (i.e., periods of drought) to which traditional crop varieties are not adapted further pushed farmers in this new direction.

Community organization also suffered drastic changes. Traditionally, farmers enjoyed a high level of grass-roots organization. For example, in southern Mali, all community tasks were carried out by the village youth who were organized in a group known as the Kotè. The Kotè was particularly crucial in carrying out particular winter fieldwork. But a national policy attempted to substitute traditional organizations with a modern one, the Association Villageoise (village association). The capacity of the latter to fulfill its purpose was short-lived and the Association Villageoise, although still in existence, is now a non-functional entity. On the other hand, traditional organizations have become weak and collective efforts for accomplishing agricultural work is difficult to organize. This represents a major limitation for agricultural fieldwork, which currently suffers from a labor shortage.

Agricultural research was directed to serve the interests of investors and thus did not fit the needs of farmers. Furthermore, this type of research and its institutions was gender biased. Thus, within Opérations de Développement Rural (the main governmental institution for rural development) and in the Associations Villageoises, there is a quasi-total absence of women, even though women produce 80% of the food crops³.

Aware of the failure to bridge the gap between research and small-scale farmers, the government overhauled its Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER) (Rural Economy Institute). In 1993, the IER became an independent governmental agency with its own holdings, and management and decision-making bodies. Its goal was to make available to farmers appropriate techniques to promote increased production and arrest resource degradation. The IER now has in-built procedures and structures ensuring that farmer input is taken into account at all stages of the research program. Significantly, the IER set up local, regional and national committees inclusive of farmer representation and also created a national fund allocated to the end users. It is still too early to evaluate this process. However, as a result of IER efforts, there has been some adoption of new technology but the poorest farmers have remained largely unaffected.

Some changes within the governmental extension service are also taking place. Recent structural adjustment programs have resulted in the removal of government subsidies on agricultural inputs. This has made chemical inputs even less available and has thus aroused a new interest in low external input agriculture among some extension workers.

Malian farmers in general cannot afford to purchase chemical inputs or other equipment. Farmers owning animal-drawn implements are only seen in the cotton-growing area of southern Mali, whereas farmers in the non-priority areas are generally under-equipped. Those who do acquire inputs or equipment buy them through a credit system that is not appropriate to their economic situation and subsequently have difficulty paying back.

The poorest Malian farmers, particularly those in marginalized areas, actually never abandoned their traditional farming methods. With the exception of irrigated areas, practices such as intercropping, integration of agriculture with livestock, agroforestry, or compost production are common practices among resource-poor farmers. Because these agroecologically-sound methods were already practiced, the opportunity existed to find a way to integrate them into a durable agroecological system and to allow farmers to regain confidence in the value of their own agricultural knowledge. SANE was able to seize this opportunity.

In January 1995, under SANE sponsorship, a national consultation on sustainable agriculture was held in Mali. It gathered 38 participants representing state, research, and funding institutions, and national and international NGOs. This national consultation concluded that increased food insecurity in Mali was tied to both decreased soil fertility and the substitution of traditional agricultural methods for high input methods inappropriate to resource-poor farmers. Participants recognized the inadequacy of information flow and training in sustainable agriculture as major obstacles to solving production problems.

The lack of farmers’ knowledge of soil and water conservation techniques was identified as a major obstacle to improvement in agriculture. Soil erosion has been exacerbated by human activities such as deforestation and overgrazing. The falling yields of rain-fed crops (millet, niébé and sorghum) are some of its consequences. Agricultural production is also strongly affected by pests and weeds. For example, about 85% of agricultural fields are infested with the weed Striga hermonthica causing from 20 to 100% losses depending on the fields⁴. Pests affecting stored products are another problem farmers face. Appropriate methods to protect stored products are not available to resource-poor farmers. Existing chemical methods are expensive, dangerous, and farmers do not master them due to illiteracy. Sometimes, even extension workers do not have the adequate education and training to teach farmers about safe methods for using agrochemicals.

In contrast to the conventional approach whereby research has been determined by the government or by funding agencies, the priorities established for the SANE projects considered the needs of farmers, specifically the poorest ones. Farmer participation meant that the priorities set by SANE corresponded to their needs, that the methods used could be appropriated by them, and that implementation took place as decided by farmers.

The priorities established in the two field projects implemented under SANE entailed making the most out of farmer knowledge to increase sustainable agricultural production both qualitatively and quantitatively. The ultimate goal is the elimination of food insecurity.

In addition to developing appropriate agroecological techniques, SANE also aimed at strengthening of institutions

involved in outreach, and to foster favorable policies. Through these activities, local NGOs would be given the means to extend its exchanges with other farming communities, other NGOs, government agencies, and universities.

Since 1992, the number of local NGOs in Mali has increased from 50 to 700. These NGOs are therefore recent and have little experience in development, and many actually exist only on paper. A few NGOs, however, are functional and have a participatory approach with the goal of increasing the communities’ ability to confront the problems they face. Two such NGOs were given the task by SANE to conduct two pilot projects which would serve as lighthouses for the rest of the country’s rural communities. A third NGO, ADAF-Gallè, based in the capital city, was given the task of coordinating the two projects and serve as the focal point for SANE.

The first project "Support to the grassroots initiative of the association Mombié Djégnoumo" is on soil and water conservation in the Plateau Dogon area in East-central Mali. The project was implemented by Harmony of Development in the Sahel (HDS) in response to a request to HDS from Mombié Djégnoumo, a traditional community organization present in 45 villages. Mombié Djégnoumo identified on its own the basic problem they wanted to solve: soil loss due to wind and water erosion.

The second project "Support to sustainable agriculture initiatives in two villages of Sanankoroba district" also addresses the problem of low-fertility soils. The project is located southeast of the capital and is also implemented by a local NGO called Malian Association for the Conservation of Fauna and the Environment (AMCFE). In this project area, the cultivation of cotton and tobacco is thought to have caused low soil fertility. As mentioned above, farmers initially believed that increasing the use of chemical fertilizers, which they could not afford, was the only way to replenish nutrients.

The climate of Plateau Dogon is extreme. Periods of hot drought with temperatures in excess of 40 degrees C and evapotranspiration rates of 250 mm/month alternate with heavy and destructive rains. This rain pattern in conjunction with the sandy plateau's westerly downward inclination creates a high potential for soil erosion and low water-retention.

However, for a long time, erosion was kept in check. It is known that shortly after their arrival on the plateau, the Dogon people had developed soil and water conservation techniques. As a carry-over from this ancient tradition, present-day farmers are still seen constructing terraces around water sources. For centuries, these practices and a good natural plant cover on agricultural lands prevented soil loss. In recent decades, however, with deforestation, low herbaceous cover, and high-intensity rains, farmers face difficulties in retaining the soils they rely on for their livelihood. Rain-caused erosion has washed away great quantities of topsoil into the ocean with wind erosion further exacerbating the problem. Recent estimates indicate that at least 10 tons/ha-year of topsoil is being lost from the plateau.

For more than ten years, NGOs and government agencies have unsuccessfully attempted to join farmers in finding a durable solution against soil loss. In 1993, HDS carried out some experiments to assess the value of anti-erosion techniques based on traditional methods. Upon witnessing some of the preliminary results from these experiments, the traditional farmer organization Mombié Djégnoumon ("Uniting to uplift ourselves") approached HDS to help it improve traditional anti-erosion methods. Thus, from its inception, this project did not aim to substitute traditional methods with new ones, but rather to build upon them.

Also in contrast to the classical approach in which projects simply "land" somewhere, this pilot project was initiated because the farmer association Mombié-Djégnoumon requested its support. This "bottom-up" process is an essential element in the project and was encouraged since the inception of the project. Farmers were considered as partners, their opinions were always taken into account, and their decisions prevailed. For example, HDS proposed to create a new management committee for the supervision of all SANE-Plateau Dogon activities. The local communities were against it believing that the already existing traditional structures were preferable to the proposed committee. Thus, their view prevailed.

To conduct an initial diagnostic of problems and potential solutions, and believing that small-scale farmers represent a human resource valuable in solving present agriculture challenges, HDS set up farmer workshops. The workshop topics emphasized included:

• Soil and water conservation
• Organic fertilizer production and use
• Protection of crops and stored products against pests.

For each one of these areas, existing traditional methods, their strengths and weaknesses were identified. These data provided the basis upon which future techniques would be developed.

Training was conducted at several levels:

• HDS field worker training was provided to upgrade the skills of HDS persons in closest contact with the community
• Ten farmers, members of the association, received training to increase their knowledge of water and soil conservation methods. The aim was for these farmers to later train other farmers and gradually end the association’s reliance on HDS for mastery of these techniques.
• All community members involved in the construction aspects of the projects received training in establishing contours, in improved designs of rock ridges and of mini water catchment pockets (zais).
• The association’s treasurer received training on accounting as a way to strengthen the association in this realm.

The land selected for the demonstration plot had a 1% slope, a hard and barren substrate, and just a few surviving trees established decades ago. Encountering no obstacles, flowing water took away all the topsoil leaving behind a thin layer of soil with low water infiltration capacity. On such land, it is impossible for any seed to germinate without intervention.

On this challenging site, it was decided to develop and teach farmers techniques to improve the soil. The goal was to stop the flow of water and soil, to increase water infiltration, restore the degraded soil and increase soil fertility. If successful, the implemented agroecological methods would improve seed germination, plant growth, and crop productivity.

Composting. The use of organic fertilizer is well developed on the Dogon Plateau and farmers distinguish between many kinds of composts and manure and their corresponding optimal uses. Nevertheless, the scarcity of organic fertilizer was identified during the workshops as a limiting factor. Thus techniques to produce greater quantities of compost in a shorter period of time were developed. The traditional use of a rock enclosure instead of a pit in which to produce compost was elected. This may be advantageous because the spaces between the rock walls of the enclosure increase aerobic decomposition. The few modifications brought to the method to speed up decomposition included compacting of compost materials and more abundant and regular watering.

Rock ridges. The construction of rock ridges (small dikes and infiltration dikes) against water erosion is an ancient practice in the Plateau Dogon. Indeed, in the first centuries following their arrival on the plateau, the Dogons already used such techniques. The traditional methods prevented erosion successfully for a long time. However, their current usefulness is limited due to weaknesses in the constructions and to the increased intensity of eroding forces. These weaknesses include:

• Deviation from level contours. Farmers actually know that these constructions stop water more efficiently when they are perfectly perpendicular to water flow. But without an instrument to establish level contours, farmers used approximate visual observations to determine the position of the constructions.
• Weak foundations. Strong foundations are required to ensure the stability of an anti-erosion structure. The weakness of the foundations in traditional structures limits their strength when they are confronted to strong water flow.
• Weakness in body structure. The positioning of rocks is such that the whole structure offers little resistance against water pressure.

The improvements brought to the traditional-type structures are:

• Determination of the level plane.
• Improved foundations by placing a filtering layer of small stones to prevent the collapse of the structure.
• Development of two types of structures depending on the intensity of the flowing water and on the amount of labor available.
• Rational positioning of rocks in the body of the ridges. The combination of HDS models, the traditional model, and farmer experimentation led to the development of a series of simple but effective techniques to increase the durability and efficacy of the traditional structures. For example, for increased stability, the larger rocks forming the outside of the wall are tilted inwards instead of being parallel, as is traditional. Also, the downhill side of the wall is protected from wearing down by large rocks placed flat into the ground. While larger rocks provide stability in the face of high water pressure, gravel is used where water flow is to be slowed down.

An important overall consideration was the judicious distribution of physical investment over the entire incline. Thus, the size of the ridges corresponds to the degree of control over water flow (Figure 6).

The zai. The zai is yet another practice already familiar in the Plateau Dogon. The zai’s purpose is to create water pockets to increase water infiltration. It is a circular depression, with a crescent-shaped edge on one side and an opening on the other. Plants are grown inside the zai (Figure 2). The main improvement over the traditional design involved the positioning of the zais relative to one another. Traditionally, the zais are aligned slope-wise. A staggered arrangement between two successive rows was adopted as this allows optimal water catchment. Farmers also experimented with the dimensions and orientation of the zais. It was found that, the larger a zai, the more favorable the conditions for the plant. Also, zais with an uphill opening were found to maximize water catchment but sometimes cause eddies inside it which wash away the compost and seed. This doesn’t happen in a zai with a downhill opening where sufficient water can collect inside it provided rain water is sufficient. Thus, both kinds of zais were used depending on water flow. The downward facing zai, counterproductive in theory but useful in practice, would not have been developed by HDS field workers were it not for the farmer’s experimentation.

Seeding. Here too, the innovation consisted in modifying the existing method of planting millet. In the traditional method, the millet seed is planted inside the zais after the first rain. The deposited seed is simply covered with the soil previously removed to make the seeding holes. In the modified method, the seed are placed in the zais hole before the first rain and are immediately covered with compost without adding any soil in a single operation. Covering the seed with compost alone avoids compacting which ensures good air circulation as is required for proper seed germination.

• The exchange of information on activities that each community was involved in
• The exchange of technical experiences
• The greater engagement of people to multiply the results on a large scale.

After 3 years of activities, the main impacts of HDS activities on target rural communities and the natural resource base are summarized in Table 8.

The SANE project implemented by AMCFE is located in Sanankoroba district near the capital (southern Mali). The population of Sanankoroba district is mainly of the Bamanan ethnicity and is estimated at 33,060. Agriculture is the main activity, but gathering, vegetable gardening, sedentary animal husbandry, and apiculture are also practiced. In recent years, decreases in soil fertility have reduced agricultural production and increased food insecurity.

Past efforts have been undertaken to satisfy the nutrition needs of these communities. Governmental agricultural research had two objectives:

• To accelerate the development and adoption of innovative techniques to increase productivity and agricultural production.
• To target the needs of small farmers which comprises the majority of the population.

However, these efforts have not resulted in concrete positive change. By and large, the proposed innovations have not been appropriate to the small farmers’ economic condition or their environment. Rural communities still lack technology to improve the performance of their agroecosystems⁵.

The OHVN (Office of the Upper Niger Valley) is a development organization with twelve years of involvement in the project area. It provides technical support to farmers, and introduced high input cotton cultivation as a way to increase incomes. Agricultural equipment such as plows, oxen, sprayers and chemical inputs are paid back by farmers to OHVN after harvest. The methods used in cotton are making their way into traditional crops. For example, farmers use some of the chemical fertilizer intended for the cotton on their millet and sorghum fields. Farmers are thus becoming dependent on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which they often use in sub-optimal dosages, and without proper protection. These changes are associated with a "loss of faith" in the community’s own agricultural knowledge.

After years of producing cotton and tobacco unsustainably, farmers became increasingly aware of their soil’s loss of fertility and their incapacity to counteract it. They saw their only hope in chemical fertilizers, but since they could not afford them, they continued to witness decreasing yields. It is in this context that the Malian Association for the Conservation of the Fauna and the Environment (AMCFE) became involved in this area, selecting two villages, Tadiana and Tadianabougou, in which to focus their activity.

A team of five persons initiated recruitment of farmers by conducting meetings with all the target groups in the two villages (village council, youth and women’s associations, and resource persons). The goal of this recruiting process was for the project to be handed over to the communities. As a result, a body of traditional knowledge was recorded, workshops were held, and an agroecology committee was set up. It was the first time in these communities that traditional agroecological knowledge was collected in a participatory fashion, and that all the agricultural actors in the area (including NGOs, and technical and administrative services) gathered to assess the potential of agroecological practices.

The project’s approach is based on community participation, knowledge and skills of farmers, consultation of the various local actors and other program collaborators. Handing over of the project to the community requires substantial local participation at all stages of the project. Thus, AMCFE remained in constant contact with the communities throughout the initial assessment, project design and implementation stages. This was achieved via discussions, meetings, and general assembly with all target groups (youth and women’s associations, village council, and resource persons). Consultation with all actors in the area (administrators, technical experts, and NGOs) was always emphasized. The overall goal has been to integrate the actions of the various actors and to strengthen local development.

The strengthening of organizations has also been emphasized to ensure the project’s continued impact after the NGO removes itself from the project. Renewing and circulating equipment among the young of the village by means of periodical reimbursement also ensure the continuity of the project. This approach contributed to fostering a renewed local development dynamism in Tadiana and Tadianabougou (Table 9).

Participation in training was limited to farmers from the two villages. The communities decided the selection of participating farmers.

Training took place in two phases:

• A theoretical phase in which participants were exposed to the various agroecological techniques in use in their area and possible future improvements.
• A practical phase in which participants carried out or witnessed the result of agroecological techniques. This phase included an exchange visit between 24 farmers from the two villages and those from the village of Gouani (thirty kilometers away), where IER works in collaboration with farmers on agroecological techniques (water and soil conservation, and fallow improvement). It was the first time discussions between these farmers ever took place. Participants were highly motivated upon witnessing the implemented projects. Upon returning from this field trip, some farmers began using the conservation techniques, such as rock lines, they had observed.

Composting. Composting of manure from small ruminants, fowl and oxen mixed with kitchen waste is an established practice in that area. Traditionally, farmers use compost in their home gardens and in vegetable production. As a result of the workshops, and with the goal of increasing soil fertility, it was decided that compost quality could be improved by using a greater variety of organic inputs and that compost might be applied on a wider range of crops. Thus, crop residues, tree leaves, and ashes were used to make compost that was then applied in maize and sorghum as well as on vegetables. Another innovation included the use of 2.5m x 1m x 0.5m composting pits and regular watering. Good results have already been obtained on vegetables fertilized with locally produced materials.

Rock ridges and small infiltration dikes. The goal of these techniques is to reduce soil loss and improve soil water absorption. These techniques have long been familiar to farmers. As with the Plateau Dogon project, the lifetime and quality of the traditional method was improved by providing training on the use of the A-frame and specific rock-laying techniques.

Sheep fattening. The goal of this activity is to produce manure for fertilizer production as well as to generate extra income. Fifty sheep were distributed to ten farmers. The sheep were fed niébé and groundnut crop residues and other feed. Results were mixed, with some farmers incurring losses while the rest were able to generate an average 24% profit on their initial investment.

Equipment. To make possible the implementation of agroecological techniques, particularly in the construction of rock lines and small dikes (transport of rocks), using compost, and in producing forest tree saplings, equipment was supplied to participants. Thus, each pilot farmer received a cart and small equipment. These materials are provided through a system of revolving agricultural credit with a five-year payback period. Each year, subsequent to pay back, these funds are used to purchase new equipment that is once again sold to farmers selected by the villagers. It was the first time that a system to renew agricultural equipment was established in these villages.

In the early stages of involvement, the following key ingredients contributed to the success of both projects:

• Site selection. In both selected sites, a real and pressing need existed (loss of soil fertility).
• Openness. In these projects, the analysis of the actual physical and socio-cultural environment prevailed over preconceived development notions and techniques.
• Farmer first research. The development project targeting small farmers began with an assessment carried out by farmers of the strengths and limits of traditional methods. The constraints thus determined formed the foundation upon which NGOs based project implementation. NGOs served as facilitators raising farmers’ awareness of the value of their own knowledge and know-how.

The participatory approach had some concrete advantages:

• The fact that farmers found themselves in the role of active players in the project facilitated their involvement.
• Several innovations would not have been developed had farmers not been free to decide on the types of field experiments. This is the case with improvements made on the small infiltration dike models and with the downward-opening zais.

Farmer participation was enhanced by:

• The fact that HDS and AMCFE field staff working in the projects were actually members of the target communities, that they had experience as moderators, and knew how to truly listen.
• The fact that the innovations developed is connected with traditional knowledge.
• Having available concrete examples that highlight the soundness of agroecological methods that are effective, cheap, and easy to implement.

Others lessons learned were:

• the adoption of new techniques depends largely upon the results obtained in the experimental trials conducted by the farmers
• an important ingredient for the project’s success is that activities be based upon needs freely expressed by farmers
• the skills of small farmers is a valuable resource to be utilized

When comparing the two SANE projects in Mali with respect to their level of development as lighthouses, it appears they have been successful in rapidly achieving the main internal goals. They are now at a stage where more could be done to fulfill the external goals of the lighthouse, especially in outreach and policy advocacy.

A reduction in the reliance on external inputs was achieved both in terms of the increased production and use of local inputs but also in terms of a renewed faith in traditional knowledge that is associated with the use of local resources.

On a modest scale, through increases in yields of traditional food crops, food security has been improved in the SANE-influenced villages. The food reserve of the association Mombié-Djégnoumo increased and the ten families participating in the AMCFE project increased their food production.

In both projects, regeneration of plant cover and the beginnings of soil build-up has been observed.

The project resulted in the development of agroecological techniques focusing on soil and water conservation and increasing soil fertility. The integration of sheep and goat increased compost inputs and had the additional benefit of income generation from selling the animals for meat. To a lesser extent, environmentally benign pest management based on traditional methods was also developed.

Although training has already taken place and contributed to the successful development and adoption of agroecological techniques, both farmers and HDS and AMCFE workers feel they could benefit from further training in the more general aspects underpinning agroecological theory and its applications.

Dissemination of the new methods within the communities harboring the pilot projects has been very fast, as made evident by the adoption of anti-erosion and composting methods by non-pilot farmers. There have been efforts to influence other villages through farmer-to-farmer cross-visits which took place between Mombié-Djégnoumo members and villages participating in a government extension project (Projet de Vulgarisation en Pays Dogon/Service de Développement Agricole). Such visits between farmers provide a good structure for farmer-to-farmer exchanges and promote adoption of new techniques. Their impact, however, could be amplified by multiplying farmer workshops and study trips in other villages. It will be important to extend the program to other income-generating activities targeted towards women such as home garden production and making karité butter.

The SANE network has become a catalyst for sustainable agriculture in Mali. It has allowed NGOs and government services to jointly work in agricultural research and extension and to become better acquainted with agroecology. Local authorities have always been informed of the projects, and the district heads officially inaugurated farmer workshops. Extension workers from governmental institutions were also invited so issues could be discussed and experiences shared as widely as possible. Partnerships with other organizations were sought as much as possible. For example, AMCFE organized in collaboration with IER the visit of 24 farmers to Gouani to witness the achievements of IER on soil and water conservation and improved fallow. In the future, increasing collaboration with research centers (CNR and Universities) and with organizations in new districts would be very fruitful. The organization of agroecology courses in the university could motivate students to set up demonstration plots and carry out agroecological research in the field with farmers. Such agroecology courses in agriculture departments could also promote the SANE program in agricultural universities so that future extension workers may have a better vision of the positive effects of agroecology for resource-poor farmers.

At the level of grass roots organizations, the Plateau Dogon project showed that traditional organizations, despite their recent weakening, could successfully be revitalized and become effective in promoting the agroecological approach. Providing training to leaders could further strengthen grassroots organizations. The three NGOs implementing SANE’s program in Mali could also be further strengthened. Material support to increase their mobility would naturally further their effectiveness. The production of audiovisual materials to disseminate project highlights would assist these NGOs in becoming more effective at influencing national policy. Some training on the larger political and economic issues impinging upon their development work will also be crucial.

As mentioned earlier, the discontinued subsidy of agricultural inputs has favored the development of agroecological systems. However, this did not occur as a result of SANE activities. To date, SANE-Mali has not had a significant impact on national policy. To do so, it needs to increase its own awareness of the wider political environment, and further develop its lobbying activities.

The SANE project was initiated at a time when farmers were starting to lose hope and confidence in their own knowledge system. Out of despair, many were interested in increasing the use of inputs they could not purchase, as the only solution to the loss of soil fertility. It is in this context of hopelessness that SANE brought about a new sense of optimism. SANE’s approach of utilizing and revitalizing existing traditional methods was instrumental in getting farmers to solve their own problems. In the project areas, farmers now value agroecological methods. For example, the idea that chemical fertilizers were the only solution to soil fertility depletion is now challenged by farmers themselves and can be counteracted with concrete field examples. The stage is now set for the SANE approach, which has proven its value in increasing food production and income, to be disseminated farther through additional capacity building and lighthouse activities.