CONWAY, C., *SEARS, R. and MAY, B.; Genomic Variation Laboratory; Department of Animal Science; University of California, Davis; Davis, CA 95616; caconway@ucdavis.edu; *Mingan Island Cetacean Study, Inc.; 285 Green St.; St. Lambert, Quebec; Canada J4P 1T3
Determining blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) population structure using introns of conserved nuclear genes
             We are examining the variation found within introns of conserved nuclear genes to determine whether there are separate stocks (demographically independent units) of blue whales for purposes of conservation management. In the recovery plan for the species, determining the stock structure is the first task listed. Molecular genetic analysis offers the most reliable method for testing whether the species consists of one randomly mating population or subdivisions because these animals are highly mobile and difficult to observe. To date there have been no genetic studies to elucidate the stock structure of the species. The use of nuclear introns as markers has several advantages: 1) they are inherited from both parents; 2) there are a great number to choose from; 3) they have exhibited a wide range of variation; 4) they provide both allele frequency and sequence data for analysis; and 5) the primer pairs designed for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been effective across broad taxonomic groups of plants and animals. The experimental design consists of three phases. In the first phase we will test the amplification of 40 different introns. In phase two, we will rapidly and economically screen introns for variation using single-stranded conformational polymorphisms (SSCP). In phase three, those introns that appear to contain the most potentially informative variation will be amplified in all samples and the PCR products resolved on an SSCP gel. Bands will be excised, re-amplified and sequenced using an automated system. To date, we have successfully amplified 12 introns in blue whales of 19 that we have tested. In most cases, the same primer pairs were effective in amplifying introns in two distantly related species, the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) and the harbor porpoise (Phocoeena phocoena). In 4 cases, variation was evident in the SSCPs of three test samples from the same geographic region. This study will make a significant contribution to the conservation of blue whales by providing insight into whether the species is subdivided into demographically independent stocks and, if so, whether these stocks can be delineated geographically. In addition, the exploration of introns as markers along with the development of a simple, rapid, and relatively inexpensive approach for screening for variation may significantly contribute to the conservation of other organisms.

DEW, J.L.; Dept. of Anthropology; UC Davis; One Shields Ave.; Davis, CA 95616; jldew@ucdavis.edu
Fates of seeds dispersed by two species of amazonian primates, with notes on interactions with dung beetles
             The seeds of many tropical rainforest plants depend on vertebrate frugivores for successful dispersal and establishment, but frugivore species may vary greatly in quality as dispersers. I studied the feeding ecologies of two sympatric, frugivorous, and closely-related Amazonian primates, the white-bellied spider monkey Ateles belzebuth and Humboldt's woolly monkey, Lagothrix lagotricha, following them from seed ingestion to deposition. Both are high-quality dispersers of multiple fleshy-fruited plant species. In order to compare the survivorship and recruitment of seeds dispersed by the two species, seeds passed through the guts of both species were placed at marked locations on the forest floor and then monitored over a period of months for rates of removal and sprouting. Sixty one percent of these seeds were removed by secondary dispersers or seed predators, usually (41%) within the first three days of deposition. Predators of primate-dispersed seeds were overwhelmingly mammalian. Rates of removal varied with seed size, larger seeds being more likely to be removed, and with seed species. Surprisingly, the burial of dispersed seeds by dung beetles appeared to have little influence on the survival of any but the smallest seeds. The cleaning of dung from seeds and the scattering of seeds by dung beetles may significantly affect their chances of detection by seed predators, however, and may also decrease their chances of mortality due to density-dependent factors. Seeds placed individually on the forest floor were significantly more likely to survive than seeds in clusters, and in contrast to results of previous studies elsewhere, foraging dung beetles at this site in a terra firme forest in Eastern Ecuador effectively separated medium (>5mm in length) and large seeds (>10mm) from primate fecal clumps. At the end of the study a significantly larger percentage of seeds (34%) passed by L.lagotricha remained alive compared with those passed by A. belzebuth (22%). This may be due to the smaller average volume of seeds dispersed by L. lagotricha (756 mm3 versus 2303 mm3) and to the high proportions of seeds passed by A. belzebuth of plant species preferred by terrestrial seed predators. At least two species of large-seeded plants appear to depend on A. belzebuth exclusively for endozoochorous dispersal, and removal of this species from the system is predicted to have the largest effect on plant dispersal and recruitment.

DUVAL, E.H.; Department of Integrative Biology; University of California, Berkeley; Museum of Vertebrate Zoology; 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building; University of California; Berkeley, CA 94720-3160; ehduval@socrates.berkeley.edu
Techniques of resolving conflict between traditional hunting and conservation of threatened species: case studies from Guyana, Australia, and New Zealand
             When the lifestyle of indigenous groups includes the hunting and consumption of endangered or threatened species, there is a direct cultural conflict with conservation regimes that has the potential to undermine conservation efforts. In such situations, conservation work itself takes on an aspect of cultural impact that may be detrimental to the local people. Here I present my observations from a year-long study of conflicts between conservation and the traditional harvest of wildlife by indigenous people. My research took the form of three case studies of indigenous communities in Guyana, Australia, and New Zealand. Each community had a tradition of wildlife harvest that has come into direct conflict with conservation goals and/or regulations. This summary considers the differing political, social, and ecological circumstances of each community, the methods used in finding compromises between indigenous hunters and conservationists, and the varied success of these efforts.

FALLON, S.M. and HELLMAN, J.J.; Center for Conservation Biology; Department of Biological Sciences Stanford University; Stanford CA 94305-5020; sfallon@leland.stanford.edu
Effects of elevated temperature on the larval food plants of a threatened butterfly
             We are studying how regional climate change may alter a population of a federally listed threatened butterfly, Euphydryas editha bayensis, by changing the availability of its host plants. Two annual plants are eaten by developing E. e. bayensis larvae: P. erecta and Castilleja spp. Oviposition data suggest that P. erecta is the primary host and Castilleja is the secondary host. A key difference between these two plants, however, is that Castilleja spp. lives longer than P. erecta. Because of Castilleja's extended growing season relative to P. erecta, it is hypothesized that Castilleja serves as a critical secondary resource, sustaining the butterfly population in years of drought and high temperature. The value of this secondary species under persistent elevated temperature (i.e., climate change), however, is not known.
             We ran greenhouse experiments to explicitly test how host plant senescence is affected by elevated versus ambient temperature. Explicit treatments provide data for generating predictions of climate change impacts in this threatened invertebrate. We collected multiple replicates of both host plants from the field and placed them in greenhouses that were maintained at either ambient or elevated temperature according to a nested design. Plant material was regularly sampled through time to determine water content; we analyzed dried samples for nitrogen content. We report differences between the two host species with respect to the date and rate of senescence at ambient temperature. Elevated temperature increases the senescence rate of both species relative to their rate at ambient temperature, but also changes the difference between senescence date in the two species. These results suggest that changes in resource availability for Euphydryas editha bayensis can be expected under elevated temperature. Secondary resources may play an increasing role in sustaining the larval development of E. e. bayensis under some scenarios of global warming.

FOX, W.M.; Department of Biological Sciences; Stanford University; Stanford California 94305-5020; wfox@leland.stanford.edu
Threatened species on Stanford University lands
             Stanford University is a major landowner in the southern San Francisco peninsula with over 8000 acres of land ranging from open space to a shopping mall. There are three species on Stanford land for whom conservation plans are currently underway. The California tiger salamander (Ambystoma californiense), red-legged frog (Draytonii aurora), and steelhead. These populations provide an opportunity to study threatened amphibians and fish in an urban landscape. Threats resulting in urbanization are many and California tiger salamanders are run over by vehicles, washed down storm drains, and trapped in utility boxes and behind barriers such as curbs and sidewalks. Land management practices are being altered to ensure the future survival of this isolated population. Managed drift fences have been installed along busy roadways, Lake Lagunita is being drained later in the season and at a slower rate, and additional vernal ponds have been created in less disturbed areas. The California red-legged frog has been found in several of Stanford’s Creeks. They are very uncommon on this side of the Santa Cruz mountains and are threatened by competition from the invasive bullfrog, non-native fishes and crayfish. Seasonal creeks may be the key to the red-legged frog persistence in this area because they are free of fish and crayfish. Although the steelhead have a good run, they are threatened by degraded water quality and non-native fish. Non-native species are being removed in an effort to reduce their negative impacts.

HOLL, K.D., *FOX, L.R., and Fusari, M.H.; Department of Environmental Studies; *Department of Biology; University of California; Santa Cruz, CA 95064; kholl@cats.ucsc.edu
Restoration of maritime chaparral habitat at the former Fort Ord army base
             The goal of this research is to design strategies for managing and restoring maritime chaparral, with particular reference to areas of capped landfills. The two main components of the research are: (1) to investigate biotic and abiotic factors affecting establishment and survival of two rare annual plant species, Gilia tenuiflora ssp. arenaria (sand gilia) and Chorizanthe pungens var. pungens (Monterey spineflower); and (2) to determine whether it is feasible biologically and legislatively (given concerns about woody roots penetrating flexible membrane liner caps) to restore chaparral shrubs on landfills with a flexible membrane liner. We planted both species of rare annuals and ten species of chaparral shrubs at the former Fort Ord Army base in Monterey County in the growing seasons of both 1996-7 and 1997-8. For the two species of rare annuals we manipulated a number of variables, including: (1) large animal herbivory, (2) nutrient levels (C. pungens var. pungens only), and (3) density and composition of background vegetation (both a commonly used non-native erosion control mix and a native plant mix were seeded). We planted seedlings of chaparral shrubs on a simulated landfill cap with a flexible membrane liner and on a control area. The two annual herbs had high survival rates after transplanting. Survival and reproductive output of these annual species was limited by: (1) herbivory, (2) low soil nutrients, (3) high soil moisture, and (4) competition with background vegetation regardless of its composition. Chaparral shrubs showed high survival but low growth rates; growth rates were similar on the simulated landfill cap and the control area. After two years only Lupinus arboreus had a well developed root system that reached and ran parallel to, but did not penetrate, the flexible membrane liner. We will monitor survival and growth of both annual and shrub species over the next few years in order to develop long-term management recommendations for restoration of maritime chaparral communities.

MICHAUD, J., *KOPEC, A. D. and GIRMAN, D. J.; Department of Biology, Sonoma State University, 1801 E. Cotati Ave.; Rohnert Park, CA 94928; *Earth Island Institute, 300 Broadway, Suite 28, San Francisco, CA 94133; tel (707) 664-3055; girman@sonoma.edu
Conservation genetics of San Francisco Bay harbor seals (Phoca vitulina).
             The San Francisco Bay Estuary serves as an important nursery for Harbor seals, which have the broadest geographic distribution of any pinniped. Preliminary results of tagging studies suggest that harbor seals in the S.F. Bay show high levels of philopatry to local haul-out sites in the bay. Their continued use of the bay for foraging, resting, and reproduction may provide an isolating mechanism from the coastal populations. To test for population differentiation, we generated DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial control region and compared these data to published sequences from previous studies of coastal populations in Washington, Oregon, and coastal California. We also examined the relative levels of genetic variation in the S.F. Bay seals. The results of this study provide insights into whether or not the harbor seals in the bay may warrant special conservation measures.

PERRINE, J.D.; Ecosystem Sciences; Enviromental Sciences, Policy and Management; UC Berkeley 94720; tel/fax (510) 643-3946; perrine@nature.berkeley.edu
Preliminary investigations into the Sierra Nevada red fox, Vulpes vulpes necator
             Lassen Volcanic National Park and Lassen National Forest contain a population of the Sierra Nevada Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes necator), a California-threatened species. In the summer of 1998, Trailmaster^r camera stations in the park detected SNRF at approximately 8,500 ft elevation, while gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and bobcat (Lynx rufus) occurred at 6,000 elevation. Radiotelemetry on two collared SNRF suggests the animals are at rest most of the day at sites under fir trees or boulders. Daily and seasonal elevation shifts were observed, similar to those described in historic records. Individual SNRF may be identified by distinguishing pelt features. Niche separation between the SNRF and other mid-sized carnivores in the Lassen Peak region warrants further study.