2. Indians and Wilderness

• William Cronon, in "The Idea of Wilderness," film by Lawrence Hott (1989). 
• "The Trouble with Wilderness," (1995), article in Uncommon Ground, ed. Cronon.
• J. Baird Callicott, "The Ethnocentricity of Wilderness Values," (1991) in Major Problems. . . , ed. C. Merchant.
• Indians are read out of the wilderness idea.

3. Indian Removal and National Parks

• Mark David Spence, UCLA, History doctoral dissertation, (1996) "Dispossessing the Wilderness: the Preservationist Ideal, Indian Removal, and the National Parks." 
• Spence, "Crown of the Continent, Backbone of the World: The American Wilderness Ideal and Blackfeet Exclusion from Glacier National Park," Environmental History, 1, no. 3 (July 1996).
• Rebecca Solnit, "Up the River of Mercy," Sierra Magazine, Nov.-Dec., 1992; Savage Dreams (1994)

4. Native American Land Use

• American Indians shaped the American landscape for thousands of years.
• Lands now preserved as national parks were once game refuges, shelters, and seasonal gathering locales.

5. Native People and Wilderness

• Ceremonial and spiritual meanings.
• Managed by fire to ease hunting and to encourage plant growth for gathering.
• Luther Standing Bear: "Only to the white man was nature a wilderness."

6. Wilderness Act, 1964

• "A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."
• Idea of wilderness is ethnocentric and culturally constructed, based on European idea of American continent as empty and waiting to be "improved."

7. George Catlin

• George Catlin traveled up the Missouri River in 1832; described and painted land, animals, and Indians.
• Letters and Notes. . . on North American Indian, 1844, proposed a national park on the Great Plains to include Indians.
• Upper Missouri River could become a "nation’s park containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature’s beauty."

8. Dispossessing Indians

• Samuel Bowles, Across the Continent, 1865, and Parks and Mountains of Colorado, 1868.
• "We know they are not our equals [and] we know that our right to the soil, as a race capable of its superior improvement, is above theirs." . . . "Let us say to the [Indian], you are our ward . . . ours to displace, ours to protect.’"
• " We want your hunting grounds to dig gold from, to raise grain on, and you must ‘move on.’"

9. Yellowstone Park. Created 1872

• Crow, Bannock, Shoshone, Salish, Nez Perce, Northern Paiute, Sheepeaters used the lands.
• Indian trails, lodges, teepees, camps, game runs, lodge poles; intertribal gatherings.
• Buffalo, elk, deer, bighorn sheep, small game.
• 1868 Fort Bridger; Fort Laramie Treaties reserved right to hunt on unoccupied lands.
• 1870, Washburn expedition to Yellowstone: Nathaniel Pitt Langford, Cornelius Hedges, 9 gentlemen, 6 soldiers, 2 cooks, 2 packers.

10. Chief Joseph

• Thunder Coming from the Water up Over the Land, a.k.a. Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce.
• Nez Perce War, 1877.
• 2000 U.S. troops pursue 750 Indians for 1100 miles in Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana; 13 days in Nat. Pk.; accosted tourists, pastured horses.

11. Indian War  Lodge

• 1878, Bannock enter Yellowstone after herds of livestock destroy their Idaho gathering areas.
• 1879, Sheep Eater War in Central Idaho.
• Yellowstone superintendent sets up military post to keep Indians out of park.
• Sheepeaters near Mammoth Hot Springs removed to reservation.
• 1880-81, Indians agree to stay out of park.

12. Glacier National Park, 1910

• Glacier area known as Backbone of the World occupied by Wind Maker, Cold Maker, Thunder, and Snow Shrinker.

13. Blackfeet and Glacier Park

• Beaver Pipe Bundle, sacred bundle of items given to Blackfeet by Beaver People in the Long Ago Time.
• Napi, or Old Man, the trickster teaches Blackfeet how to hunt and gather.
• Buffalo jumps, horses; sacred tobacco, roots, plants, berries; elk, deer, bighorn sheep.

14. Glacier National Park

• Glacier National Park Act, 1910; G.B. Grinnell.
• Blackfeet reservation in eastern half of park.
• 1895 cession reserved Blackfeet usufruct rights within the park, but denied by U.S.
• Blackfeet continue to use plants, animals, sacred sites inside the park to preserve traditional knowledge.
• Indians become major part of Glacier Park tourism; entertain visitors as "living museum specimens."

15. Indians at Glacier National Park

• Blackfeet tribe greets tourists for Great Northern R.R.

16. Mesa Verde National Park

• Antiquities Act, 1906.
• Protected archeological ruins.
• Created Mesa Verde National Park.
• Cliff Palace had lost trainloads of pottery and other pre-Columbian artifacts.
• Commercial exploitation and pillage.

17. Mesa Verde National Park, 1906

• Mesa Verde (Green Table), abandoned 1300 A.D.

18. Mesa Verde, Balcony House

• Mesa Verde cliff dwellings.
• Re-discovered by Europeans, in 1874, by U.S. Geological survey, Major Macomb expedition.
• Indian land cessions, 1874, 1880.

19. Southern Utes

• 1880, arrangements made with Southern Utes to an allotment in severalty of "an abundance of good agricultural land" including houses, wagons, agricultural tools, stock cattle, saw and grist mills to commence farming operations; schools, food, clothing.
• Indian Rights Association, Philadelphia, 1889: "Bill before Congress to ratify treaty to remove Southern Utes occupying reservation in S.W. Colorado, 15 mi. wide by 120 mi. long, with 24,000 acres of irrigable land with pasture."

20. Southern Utes

• 1890, New York Tribune: "The Ute Indians: Why the People of Colorado Want Them Removed"
• Governor Cooper wanted them removed to Utah. But Utes believe Utah will remove them to Arizona and Arizona will dump them into the Pacific Ocean.
• Reverand H.H. Beach, Denver: Opposed removal. Utes dug irrigation ditches, improved farmland, created comfortable homes, adopted civilized life. But didn’t value property. "In truth, we want the reservation for ourselves, we covet those ranches and the whole territory."

21. Mesa Verde National Park

• 1891, Colorado legislature asks Congress to memorialize the ruins on a part of the Ute Indian reservation.
• 1901, Colorado Cliff Dwelling Association is authorized to lease the land from the Utes.
• Mrs. Virginia McClurg gained support of 250,000 women through the General Federation of Women’s Clubs; negotiates with Utes.
• 1906, Antiquities Act created National Park.
• No living Utes in national park memorializing past Indian achievements; must remain outside.

22. Yosemite National Park, 1864

• "The Three Brothers," Carleton E. Watkins photograph.

23. Yosemite National Park

• Mariposa Battalion enters Yosemite Valley, March 27, 1851.
• Lafayette Bunnell, "Discovery of the Yosemite and the Indian War of 1851."
• 1852. Lee Vining "The name of this community honors Lee Vining. . . . In 1852 soldiers of the Second Infantry pursued Indians of Chief Tenaya’s tribe from Yosemite across the Sierra via Bloody Canyon. . . . In this group were the Vinings, Lee and Dick. . . .

24. Tenaya Lake

• Named for Chief Ten-ie-ya; Ansel Adams photograph.

25. Miwok Woman

• Bunnell: Yo-Semite Indians are a composite race.
• Miwok tribes in Yosemite Valley; Mono-Paiutes on eastern side of Sierra Nevada; Yokuts in Central Valley.
• Indians return to Yosemite.
• Miwok integrated into tourist trade; entertain visitors; employed in hotels.

26. Yosemite National Park

• Mary, Southern Miwok.
• Indian camp in the valley popular with tourists.
• Women make finely crafted baskets for tourists.
• Become famous; widely esteemed.
• 1880s: "Kodaks" used to photograph Indians.

27. Miwok Brush Shelter

• "Lucy and Bill, mother and father of Johnnie Brown died in this ochum."
• 1890: "Petition to Congress on Behalf of the Yosemite Indians."
• 1929: Indian Village burned down as eyesore.

28. Yosemite Visitors

• 1855: first tourists enter Yosemite Valley.
• 1863: 406 visitors via steamboat and stage.
• 1864 Yosemite Park Act.
• 1869: 1,100 tourists via transcontinental R.R to west.
• 1875: hotels, roads, wagons, supplies for tourists.
• 1916: 14,251 via R.R.
• 1918: 26,669 via automobile.
• 1997: 4.2 million via car.